How Memory Works

How do cognitive psychologists think about memory? I'm going to present the dominant models of memory and then end with some neat facts about memory that'll impress your friends, if you have any. I've put the psych jargon in italics for those who are interested.

Atkinson & Shiffrin's Stage Theory

There are a few popular models of how memory works. The first is Atkinson and Shiffrin's Stage Theory, also known aka the Multi-Store model. Stage theory proposes that memory works in stages, meaning that you have through 1 and 2 to get to 3. The three stages are (1) Sensory, (2) Short-Term (or Working) and (3) Long-Term.* Here's a guide to help you follow.

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Sensory memory, whether visual (iconic) or auditory (echoic) lasts only 3 seconds. Close your eyes and try and reassemble the last thing you saw. Your ability to do that relies on sensory memory.

Occasionally you will start thinking about something, like if someone asks you to remember an address for them while they talk with their ex-boyfriend about their trip to Las Vegas while you get upset, even though you asked her not to talk to him when you're around on two separate occasions (WTF?!). You've now moved the data into short-term memory (STM). STM tends to be auditory rather than visual. It fades after about 20 seconds unless you rehearse it, e.g., repeating a phone number over and over until you find a phone (maintenence rehearsal).

If you're able to produce the information on demand (recall) or successfully recognize something you've seen before (recognition) at a later time, you were able to store it in your long-term memory (LTM). At this stage, data is typically stored by reflecting on its meaning and creating associations with other memories (elaborative rehearsal); for example, if you hear an idea and disagree with it because it conflicts with some principle you identify with, you've associated the new idea with your memory of your identity and principles. You've elaborated upon the data and now are more likely to recall it. LTM breaks up into procedural memory (how to drive, text message, and text while driving), declarative-semantic (facts) and declarative-episodic (events).

Other Theories

Some no-goodnik cognitive psychologists who shall remain nameless** have disagreed with the stage theory. The Levels of Processing Theory rejects the stage bullshit and just says that memory is a function of how you process data -- visually, acoustically, or semantically. If you see it, hear it, and reflect on its meaning, you have the best chance of remembering it. The Dual-Code Hypothesis is similar, but hold that data is encoded visually, verbally, or, at its best, both.

Neat Facts To Impress Your Friends With, If You Have Any

• Flashbulb memory: Certain highly charged emotional experiences (e.g., abuse, or where you were when Kennedy was assasinated by the extraterrestrial-controlled CIA) are encoded in high detail.
• Recall improves when you are asked to recall something in the same place and in the same state of mind (drunk, high, sad).
• The tip of the tongue phenomenon (TOT) refers to difficulty with retrieval. It has almost nothing to do with oral sex.
• You memorize things best when you're not too relaxed but also not too agitated, with the exception of flashbulb memories.
• Repressed memories retrieved during hyponsis are not necessarily true. Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus was able to elicit false memories in her subjects. Memory people love talking about her.
• Most people can hold 7 +/- 2 things in STM. "Chunking" is a way to collapse lots of information into one "thing," so you can hold more.
• Daytime naps improve memory.
• H.M. was the name of a patient who, after surgery, could not form any long-term memories. Can you say "botched," Mr. M.? He woke up every day wondering where he was. Apparently, he was a friendly, social guy until his death in 2008.

Pop Quiz

1. What are the 3 stages of memory?

2. One form of LTM is declarative-episodic memory. What are the other 2?

3. What was question number 1 in this quiz?

4. Did you remember to follow this blog?

* Can you remember to hyphenate "long-term"?

** Fergus I.M. Craik & Robert S. Lockart (1972) and Allan Paivio (1986), respectively.